文学评论（literary criticism） 

文学评论是对文学作品进行批判性阅读，以文学鉴赏为基础，以文学理论作指导，对作品进行深入的分析研究和科学的评价。

第一题

关注情绪及动作词语

"The Elements is a loving reimagin

2. What makes a Non-argument

emotional discourse

fiction

conditional statements

explanation

arguments and literatures

1. Even though good fiction has a good internal logic, there is usually no proof involved.

2.The work of fiction, as a whole, can be thought of as a large conditional statement.

arguments and conditionals

1.their antecedents are not asserted to be true

2.they are no more than complex statements

3.since conditionals are statements, of course, they can be part of argument

lack of linkage

arguments and explanations

largely resemble each other

1.the same type of expressions are used in explanations and arguments

2.explanations are oftern used within arguments and presented so as to serve as argument

3.arguments could be parts of any explanation as there are often multiple explanations for any given phenomenon

1.6 

一  图表题概述

1. 主要类型：图表范例

Tables  表格

Figures  图

diagram, graph, chart, drawing, photograph

 2. 图标的主要来源与文体特点

主要来源：联合国等机构的年度报告；国家统计局发布的权威数据

文体特点：说明文体、官方

3. 考查点与主要题型

考查点：

图表理解

阅读理解：识别、分析、推理

阅读广度、国内外热点的关注度

主要题型：

正误判断

选择（正确或错误）

图文匹配

二 真题

三 备赛指南

 1. 答题过程与技巧

阅读directions

浏览图表，捕捉特点趋势

阅读、排除或选定最易判断的选项

比对、确定

第一段的段尾句是主题句，这种情况最常见

不一定每一段都有主题ju

篇章中的推理

一推理题概述

01什么是推理？

02主要题型示例及考查点

二篇章推理中的技巧：阅读大赛真题解析

三备赛指南

01答题过程与技巧

02备赛

词义猜测与理解

外语学习者应当学会猜测词义的方法，最终掌握词汇，提高阅读能力。

一根据上下文猜测词义

01转折对比线索

02同义复述线索

03反义复述线索

04背景常识线索

05举例暗示线索

06逻辑推理线索

二根据词根词缀猜测词义

三结合多种方法猜测词义

四词的字面义与隐含义

五词义包含的典故

从语句到段落

一、什么是段落

二、段落的语言衔接和语义连贯

三、段落的组织模式

二、段落的语言衔接和语义连贯

1.语言衔接

01.使用连接词与过渡词语衔接

连接词：and,or....

过渡词：then,however,in fact, consequently,eventually....

 通过使用过渡词说明后面的例子比前面的更加强有力

02.使用指代衔接

both，it，their，infer→inference....

03.使用词汇的替代、重复、省略和同义词等衔接

2.语意连贯

01.(思想）要点顺序

first，second，third...

02.时间顺序

03.空间顺序

photosynthesis：  n. 光合作用

04.逻辑顺序

however

三、段落的组织模式

1.描写型段落(文学型作品中多出现）

imply ： v.意味着；蕴含；暗指

2.陈述型段落

summary：

adj.总结性的；简略的 

n.总结，概要

3.过程描述型段落（一般都是通过时间顺序来进行语意连贯的）

4.列举/举例型段落

5.分类说明型段落

6.下定义型段落

7.对比/反衬型段落

对比：两个/两个以上 相似类型的

反衬：两个/两个以上 相反性质的

contrastingly

8.因果关系型段落

先果后因

9.混合型段落

1.5 

一  赛题概述：识别作者的目的、态度和语气

1. 如何理解作者的目的、态度和语气

目的：

What is the purpose of the text/passage/paragraph/example/quote

To argue/introduce/illustrate/provoke/arouse

To explain/illustrate/provide evidence

To reinforce/summarize/clarify

态度：+/-

psitive; confident; respectful; frank; friendly

cautious; sarcastic; determined

neutral; indifferent; unemotional

语气（tone）：

excited; interested; ironic; humorous; angry; boastful; doubtful; anxious; envious; insulting

2. 主要题型及考察点

逻辑推理能力

捕捉言外之意的能力

判断认知和情感倾向的能力

二 阅读大赛真题解析

三  备赛指南

1. 答题过程

1）仔细阅读题干

2）带着问题阅读原文

3）抓住原文的主题大意、情感倾向

4）对比、确定

2. 答题技巧

1）确定核心话题

2）抓关键词：排除或确定

1.4

一  推理题概述

1. 什么是推理

广义：All mental activities besed on certain logic

狭义：What is said----What is unsaid

           Logical reasoning:Logic

2. 主要题型及考察点

1）理解已知信息，然后进行判断或推断

2）上下句、上下段、全文结构

3）选项中的语言知识点

二  篇章推理中的技巧：阅读大赛真题解析

1. 上下句（文）义理解

2. 全篇文义理解

3. 全文内容及篇章结构

三  备赛指南

1. 答题过程

1）仔细阅读题干

2）浏览原文，确定关键词

3）排除或选定最易判断的选项

4）代入原文，比对，确定答案

2. 推理技巧

1）锁定上下句，再看全文

2）关键词、篇章组织

3）排除错误项、相似项

一  根据上下文猜测词义

1. 转折对比线索

常用转折词：but, yet, however, nervertheless

2. 同义复述线索

常用的过渡词语：or, also known as, in other words, the same as

3. 反义复述线索

常用的过渡词语：on the other hand, however, alhough, unlike

4. 背景常识线索

5. 举例暗示线索

6. 逻辑推理线索

二  根据词根词缀猜测词义（见照片） 

三  结合多种方法猜测词义

四  词的字面义（denotation）和隐含义(connotation)

五  词义包含的典故

一些出自经典作品或历史事件的专有名词有其特定的含义

Watergate(水门大厦）——水门丑闻——xxxxgate(....丑闻)

根据上下文猜测词义 转折对比线索

            同义复述 or,the same as...

          反义复述线索 although unlike

          背景常识线索

          举例暗示线索

根据词根词缀猜测词义

词义包含的典故

一  什么是段落

一个段落由多个语句构成，主要包含一个要点。这个要点可以是阐述某个观点、描述某件事、某个过程、某个物体或某个人物

二  段落的语言衔接和语义连贯

1 语言衔接

1）使用连接词和过渡词衔接

常用连接词：and, or

常用过渡词：then, however, in fact, consequently, eventually

常见过渡词语：

表示罗列：first of all, to begin with, first, second, third, finally, for one thing, for another

表示补充：in addition, additionally, moreover, furthermore, besides, apart from

表示时间：when, while, after, before, later, during, last, eventually, next, previously

表示举例：once, illustration, including, such as, (for) instance, (for) example

表示对比：however, but, althoug, instead, in contrast, in spite of, even though, on the oter hand, rather than, unlike, still

表示类比：in the same way, similarly, likewise, (just) as, (just) like

表示因果：as a result, therefore, lead to, cause, if...then, accordingly, since, because(of)

2）使用指代衔接 

3）使用词汇的替代、重复、省略和同义词等衔接

2. 语义连贯

1）要点顺序（order of ideas）

2）时间顺序（chronological order)

3）空间顺序（spatial order)

4）逻辑顺序（logical order)

三  段落的组织模式

1. 描写型段落

2. 陈述型段落

3.过程描述型段落（时间顺序）

4.列举/举例型段落

5.分类说明型段落

6.下定义型段落

7.对比/反衬型段落

语言衔接： 连接词与过渡词

       指代衔接

       词汇的替代、重复、省略和同义词

语义连贯： 要点顺序 1.2.3.

       时间顺序

       空间顺序

       逻辑顺序

段落的组织模式：描写 陈述 过程描述 举例列举

分类说明 下定义 对比反衬 因果关系型段落

一、阅读大赛样题解析

多读，平时注意积累，广泛阅读，尽量不局限于某一体裁或根据自己的爱好固定读某一文本。

进行critical thinking.读后思考，可以将同一主题，同一作者的作品进行对比思考，在阅读的过程中养成记笔记的好习惯。

阅读训练四：把握主题思想和细节

一、话题、主题思想与主题句

二、如何确定话题

三、如何确定主题思想

四、如何查找主题句和主题句的支持细节

一、话题、主题思想与主题句

话题（topic）

• 以词或词组的形式概括一段文字或一个语篇

主题思想（main idea）

• 对话题作出的进一步阐述，表达作者对话题的立场、观点等

主题句（topic sentence）

• 直接或间接表达主题思想的句子

区分话题、主题思想与主题句

Example：

话题：环境保护

主题思想：人类应当减少自己的行为对环境的破坏

主题句：人类必须减少甚至停止不必要的消费以减少对自然环境的破坏。

二、如何确定话题

通过多次提及的词或词组确定

通过文章的标题确定

通过文章的内容进行推断

1. 通过对词题词的词或词组

Most of the news stories are centered on the negatives of debt; but in reality, there are plenty of positive aspects of personal debt. After all, very few of us could actually afford to purchase a home or attend college without some sort of assistance through credit. The key is to make debt work for you, not against you. 

According to this passage, which of the following can be inferred about personal debt?

A. Different types of debts share common loan terms

B. People ought to utilize favorable aspects of personal debt. 

C. Mortgage loans provide boosts to the real estate industry. 

D. Paying credit card off in full every month is an unpractical goal

2. 通过文章的标题

Chinese Medicine

Modern genetic techniques are showing some effects of traditional Chinese medicine on the genome. Some of the variety of individual responses to these therapies can be explained by epigenetic influences on gene expression. 

What is the main topic of this text?

A. The philosophy of traditional Chinese medicine

B. Evidence for the potency of acupuncture needles

C. The causes of the changes of gene expression

D. Traditional Chinese medicine's impact on genes. 

3. 通过内容的推断

Catwalk models are, on average, 25 percent below a normal, healthy woman's weight. We know how they achieve this, because many former models say so: they starve themselves. They live on water and lettuce for weeks. When they fall below a Body Mass Index of 12, they start to consume their own muscles and tissues. Several models have dropped dead from stravation after success at fashion shows in the past few years. 

What is the best title for this text?

A. What makes a successful model

B. Victims of fashion 

C. How to keep fit 

D. Going on a diet 

三、如何确定主题思想

1. 通过正确的推测；

• 列举事实
• 以提出问题开始
• 列举争论的观点，但不给结论
• 比较与对比
• 列出研究结果

列举事实：

Introductory courses in ancient Greek myth are taught in many colleges and universities. In my own university, our full introductory course regularly attracts about 400 students each year. This book, then, is intended for students who have some backgroudn in Greek myth but want to know more. There is a huge body of scholarship on the topic, but much of this scholarly discussion is not easy for students, especially for those who don't read Greek or Latin. This book tries to bridge the gap between the introductory books and the scholarly studies, to present some of the research that has accumulated over the past decades in a way that is accessible for those who are not yet scholars in this field. 

Where is the piece of text probably taken from?

A. An acknowledgement 

B. A conclusion

C. An abstract 

D. A preface 

In ancient Maya, priests were consulted on civil agricultural and religious matters. The Haab was the calendar they used to plan when to plant seeds and harvest crops. Children were even named after the date on which they were born. The ancient Mayans also thought that the five days at the year's end were unlucky. 

What is the LEAST possible title for this text?

A. The Maya Calendar

B. The Concept of Time

C. The Imortance of Priests 

D. The Life of Ancient Mayans 

以提出问题开始，然后列举争论观点

So what does psychologist's research say abput possible effects of this consumer culture on people's mental well-being? Based on the literature to date, it would be too simplistic to say that desire for material wealth unequivocally means discontent. Alghough the least materialistic people report the most life satisfaction, some studies indicate that materialists can be almost as contented if they've got the money and their acquisitive lifestyle doesn't conflict with more soul-satisfying pursuits. But for materialists with less money and other conflicting desires-a more common situation-unhappiness emerges, researchers are finding.

主题思想：追求物质财富是否具有更高的幸福感和满足感需要依据具体情况而定。

通过比较与对比

For example, if in studying botany we learn that all plants have cells, we should connect this idea to the fact that all animals have cells (which we learned in studying biology). We then can begin to consider the similarities and differences between the types of animal and plant cells while recognizing a foundational concept that applies to both botany and biology. Or consider the relation between psychology and sociology. Psychology focuses on individual behavior while sociology focuses on group behavior. But people's individual psychology influences how they relate to group norms, and social groups shape how individuals deal with their perceived life problems and opportunities. 

Which of the following statements does the text directly support? 

A. Most people are not aware of the relationship between botany, biology, psychology, and sociology, which is precisely why this comprehensive course is designed for college students. 

B. Being critical, the reflective mind assesses what it reads for relevance, depth, and significance. Being open to new ways of thinking, it values new ideas and learns from what it reads. 

C. Core ideas within one domain are related to those in other systems, for knowledge exists not only in a system but also in relation to all other systems of knowledge. 

D. Small-scale structures and events underlie larger-scale phenomena of life. We can correlate observations made at different levels of the organization of life from the smallest to the largest. 

列出研究结果

2.  通过主题句获取

The internal sugar industry documents, recently discovered by a researcher at the Universtiy of California, San Francisco, and published Monday in JAMA Internal Medicine, suggest that the sugar industry may have manipulated the research into the role of sugar in heart disease. 

四、如何查找主题句

五、主题句的支持细节

1. 识别主题句的支持细节

2. 区分主要与次要支持细节

• 通过过渡词识别支持细节：along the same lines, also, moreover, in other words, more precisely, in addition, first, second, third, finally, then, too, . . . 

Getting electric cars widly adopted still presents challenges. The biggest is dealing with the remaining 13 precent of cars making trips that are too long for today's electric vehicles. People need to have a convenient alternative on their "high-energy days", Trancik says, or they will never purchase an electric vehicle. Sharing of gas-powered-vehicles is one potential solution, and down the road, quick-charging stations or battery swapping may become more realistic options 

Which of the following can be inferred from the passage?

A. The electric car may not be the best choice for those who travel too far. 

B. The problem of insufficient mileage range will be resolved by 2020. 

C. The electric car is most popular in countries where oil is expensive. 

D. The key issue in developing electric cars is the government policy. 

Nonverbal communication is often spontaneous and unintentional, and its meaning may be ambiguous. For one thing, different nonverbal codes can indicate the same meaning while one nonverbal code can have different meanings in diverse contexts. Think about your expression of love toward your parents. Have your affective words or behavior remained the same over the past 18 years? Do you feel the same when a friend gives you a hug at the news that you have failed an exam and at the time when you have won an award? In addition, people may use masking, a facial management technique, to replace an expression of true feeling with one appropriate for a give interaction. For instance, your friend Mary is suffering from a fever but still smiles at you to confirm that she's OK. 

Which statement is true about the ambiguity of nonverbal communication?

A. It leads to vagueness in nonverbal codes in a given context. 

B. Intended meanings of nonverbal codes cannot be conveyed fully. 

C. It stems from the spontaneity and randomness of nonverbal codes. 

D. True feelings can be hidden by the ambiguity of nonverbal codes. 

如何对非文学文本进行批判性阅读？

Critical Discourse Analysis （CDA）批判性话语分析

可以从哪些方面对文本进行批判性阅读？

Who is the author?

Is the piece aimed at a particular audience? A neutral audience? Persons who are already sympathetic  to the author's point of view? A hostile audience?

What is the author's thesis? (argument, main point, claim)?

What assumptions does the author make? Do I share them? If not, why not? （assumption 是观点背后更基本的价值观和价值取向）

• Example：We should not legalize recreational drugs. Illegal drugs cause too much street violence and other crimes. 
• Reason: illegal drugs cause violence and other crimes. 
• assupmtion: Public safety is more important than freedom of choice. 

Does the author ever confuse facts with beliefs or opinions?

What appeals does the author make? To reason, to emotions, or to trustworthy?

Example: Martin Luther King "Where do we go from here?"

If you will let me be a preacher just a little bit(appeal to authority) - One night, a juror came to Jesus and he wanted to know what he could do to be saved. Jesus didn't get bogged down in the kind of isolated approach of what he shouldn't do. Jesus didn't say, "Now Nicodemus, you must stop lying." HE didn't say, "Nicodemus, you must stop cheating if you are doing that." He didn't say, "Nicodemus, you must not commit adultery." He didn't say, "Nicodemus, now you must stop drinking liquor if you are doing that excessively." He said something altogether different, because Jesus realized something basic - that if a man will lie, he will steal. And if a man will steal, he will kill. So instead of just getting bogged down in one thing, Jesus looked at him and said, "Nicodemus, you must be born again." (使用类比，美国需要彻底改变，appeal to reason，emotion)

How convincing is the evidence?

(major kinds of evidence include: intuition, personal experience, testimonials, appeals or authorities, personal observations, case examples, research studies, analogies) 可信度由低到高

Are significant objections or counter-evidence adequately discussed?

How is the text organized, and is the organization effective? Are the title, the opening paragraphs, and the concluding paragraphs effective? In what ways?

What is the author's tone? Is is appropriate?

To what extent had the author convinced me? Why?

例文：来自新视野英语

1. Who is the author？

2. Does the author ask me to accept facts or opinions?

3. Is the evidence convincing？（persoanl experience/observations）

 例文2: 

Reading skills and critical reading

什么是批判性阅读？

• 批判性阅读是一种阅读态度，也是一种思考活动；

强调：

• 不被动接受作者的指示、消极地被作者引导，顺承地接受作者的观点，不假思索地接受作者提供的材料。
• 要在理解的基础上进行质疑、批判、吸收，从而对原有的知识进行重构，使我们成为知识和学习的主体，不受他人的摆布。

批判性阅读的宗旨：

• 通过阅读，培养独立思考的能力和勇于创新的意识。

 什么是批判？

• 不盲从，通过独立、理性思考，作出选择；
• 去其糟粕，吸其精华，形成自己的思想。

批判性阅读的必要性：

• 在新媒体时代，批判性阅读可以帮助我们有效筛选信息，客观地评估信息中的个人偏见、多角度地看待问题，形成健全完善的思想观念。